模糊语言学十篇

时间:2023-03-25 16:32:33

模糊语言学

模糊语言学篇1

(一)本身意义模糊的词

在英语中,许多词语表达只是有一个模糊的概念,并不精确。比如, “morning”可以指的时间范围是黎明至中午12点以前,afternoon可以指的时间范围是中午过后直到天黑以前。

另外,英语中的不定代词作为模糊概念表示指示的不确定性。形容词只能表达一个模糊的含义,精确的程度不清晰。例如:

1. Look, someone is picking up the wallet.

2. We can set out early in the morning before it gets too hot.

(二)表面精确却含有模糊意义的词语

我们日常生活中使用的一些表示具体方位的词:前、后、左、右等,在具体的交谈中,它们所表达的概念是不精确的。例如:

She is standing on my left side.

另外,部分数词在特定情况下,变为非精确数词,不表示精确的数目。事实上,这是一种文学的夸张手法,多在文学作品出现。莎士比亚多次使用forty和forty thousand,表示“many”, “a lot of”的意思,例如:

I loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers Could not, with all their quantity of love, Make up my sum.(Shakespeare:Hamlet,V,1.)

二、模糊语言的英汉翻译

翻译的原则是“信、达、雅”,其中“信”是最主要的方面。如果我们在英汉翻译时,将将原文中的模糊语言译为准确语言,或者将原文中的准确语言译为模糊语言,表面上好似不满足“信的原则”。然而,具体翻译过程中,译者必须根据具体语言背景,两种语言的文化风俗习惯,灵活运用语言表达作者的真情实意,同时又符合译文语言的结构特点,灵活运用模糊和精确使译文更好理解。

(一)以精确译精确和以模糊译模糊

这种翻译方式就是直译,直接遵循原文的意思,精确对应精确,模糊对应模糊,一般是两种语言文化没有冲突的情况下以这种方式来翻译。例如:adropinthe ocean(沧海一粟)、kill two birds with one stone(一箭双雕)、The twosides will maintain contact and hold appropriate consultations onbilateral and international issues of common interest(.双方将就共同关心的双边问题和国际问题保持接触并进行适当的磋商)、One takes the be-havior of one's company(近墨者黑,近朱者赤)。

(二)以精确译模糊

以精确对模糊的译法就是指把话语的深层次含义,直接翻译出来,因为原文中只是隐含这一意思。例如:There is more to their life than political and social and economic problems,more than transient everydayness(.他们的生活远不止那些政治的、社会的和经济的问题,远不止一时的柴米油盐的问题。)“Everydayness”是一个模糊词,无法使用汉语直接对应。故而,我们将其具体化,译成中国人民生活所需的“柴米油盐”,反映了原文的内在含义。

模糊语言学篇2

关键词:模糊性;模糊语言学;英语教学

中图分类号:G4

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1672-3198(2010)17-0242-01

0 引言

语言的模糊性是普遍存在的,模糊语言已引起各国学者的关注, 并逐渐成为语言学研究中的一个重要领域。1965 年, 美国控制论专家查德教授提出了模糊集合论, 模糊理论的提出衍生和发展了一系列与模糊概念相关的学科: 模糊诗学、模糊语言、模糊逻辑、模糊控制技术与模糊家用电器等。20 世纪60 年代, 美国语言学家拉科夫将其理论运用于语言学, 模糊语言学的研究对象得以明确和专一。在我国, 率先对模糊语言学进行研究是伍铁平教授, 他于1979 年发表了《模糊语言初探》一文, 学者们开始纷纷从不同角度对模糊语言进行研究。对模糊语言的研究是语言学发展的一个重要途径。模糊语言理论对语言中许多模糊现象有着很强的解释力, 为我们提供了一条描述、研究语言的新途径, 其研究成果大大丰富了我们对语言的本质以及语言使用的认识, 也为我们正确认识当前英语教学中的模糊概念、指导英语教学实践以及培养教师和学生的交际能力等方面带来了有益的影响与启发。1 模糊语言学的研究方法和我国模糊语言学研究特点

1.1 模糊语言学的研究方法

模糊语言学的基础是模糊集合论。没有模糊集合论,也就不会有模糊语言学。所以国内外学者在模糊语言学研究上的基本方法都是以札德的模糊集合论为基础对语言的模糊性展开定量和定性的研究。一般说来,我国学者的模糊语言学研究倾向于定性的研究,西方学者则倾向于定量研究(数理逻辑运算和实验统计测定)。德在发表于《信息与控制》(Information and Control )杂志1965年第8 期的论文《模糊集合》中明确指出:“模糊集合是其成员隶属度构成一个连续集的所有成员组成的一个类”。在传统的集合论中,每一个集合的成员要么属于它(隶属度为1), 要么不属于它(隶属度为0)。可是, 在德看来,对现实的自然界中碰到的对象进行分类,经常会找不到精确判定其资格的根据。他指出:“‘美人’或‘高个子’这些概念并不能构成一般数学意义上的类或集合。但事实上,这种不能精确划分的类在人类的思维中却起着重要的作用”。因此,札德提出用模糊集合的方法来处理模糊现象,来研究模糊概念。可见,札德是受模糊语言的启发而提出模糊集合论的。札德在为《计算机科学和技术百科全书》撰写“模糊集”词条时写道:“‘意义’、‘智能’、‘爱情’都是模糊概念。模糊集合论这个分支学科的起源是从‘语言学’方法的引入开始的,它转而又推动了模糊逻辑的发展。”(注:转引自伍铁平《模糊理论的诞生及其意义》(上),《百科知识》1987年第1 期,第14页。)由于这个原因,从模糊集合论的诞生之日起,它就对语言学产生了巨大的影响。

模糊集合论适用于语言模糊性研究的一个根本原因在于语言范畴实际上就是某一个论域中的模糊集合。范畴的核心部分是范畴中所有成员共有的典型属性是明确的;但是范畴的边却是模糊的,不能明确地加以确定的。传统集合论的基础是二值逻辑。在二值逻辑中,一个命题,即一个表达明确意义的陈述句,其真值要么是真(记作“1”), 要么是假(记作“0”)。根据这种二值逻辑的集合论, 一个概念范畴的内涵和外延都必须是明确的。例如“吉尔是个教授”这个命题,只允许取值“1”或“0”,即吉尔或者是个教授或者不是个教授,二者必居其一。可是,要是我们将这个句子中的“教授”改成“好人”的话,问题就出现了。因为“好人”是个模糊概念,其内涵十分清楚,每一个人都很容易判定什么样的人是好人。但这个概念的外延却是不明确的,因为我们不知道一个人要好到什么程度才算得上是一个好人。对这样的命题,就不能简单地用“1”或“0”去描述其真值。德看出了二值逻辑的缺陷,提出以“隶属度”(注: 关于“隶属度”( degree of membership)的概念及其在语言分析中的应用,详见M.Smithson, 1987. Fuzzy Set Analysis for Behavioral and Social Science.New York:Springer-Verlag.Chapter 1,pp.9―12.)的概念来解决这个问题。即对于像“好人”、“坏人”这样的模糊概念的集合,规定其成员对该集合的隶属程度,可以取闭区间[0,1]内的任何实数值,即可以在[0,1]的区间内连续取值,这样,模糊集合中的每一个成员都有一个隶属度与之相对应。这个隶属度就构成了这个模糊集合关于它的元素的隶属函数(membership function)。隶属函数可用以描述各种模糊集合,这使得模糊集合论在研究各种模糊事物中具有特别重要的价值。

1.2 我国模糊语言学研究的特点

我国学者在定性研究上比较成熟,成果较多,特别是基于汉语的对比分析方法更受到西方学者的赞誉。西方学者在模糊语言学研究上多采用数学分析和哲学分析的方法,他们对汉语语料不够熟悉,对汉语的语言模糊性缺乏深刻的认识,因此对我国的模糊语言学研究比较感兴趣。概括说来,我国学者在模糊语言学研究上的特点可概括为:

(1 )以汉语为基础的跨语系对比及词源对比研究。这类研究又分为共时对比和历时对比两种。其中,伍铁平将模糊语言的历时对比同修辞学、词汇学和词源学等方面的研究结合起来,不断丰富模糊语言学的研究内容,把模糊语言学研究的水平提高到一个新的高度,受到国际语言学界的好评。

( 2)我国的模糊语言学研究不仅涉及了几乎所有的语言学分支学科,而且还与文艺理论、心理学、人工智能、逻辑学、美学、语言教学、控制论等众多学科相联系,并在所有的这些学科领域中得到广泛的应用。研究领域之广、应用效果之显著、产生影响之深远,在我国语言学史上实不多见。

(3)我国的模糊语言学研究既有宏观的理论探讨、 理论建构,又有微观的观察、描述和比较。另外还有大量的应用研究。所有的这三类研究初步构成了我国模糊语言学研究的比较完整的体系。

2 模糊语言学在英语教学中的作用

2.1 模糊语言理论可以帮助正确看待英语教学中的各种模糊概念

大量模糊信息的存在是模糊教学的客观基础。教学大纲的内容本身存在着一定的弹性即模糊性,“较强的”、“一定的”、“良好的”等词语虽模糊, 却是比较恰当的表述。认识到教学目的的模糊性, 有利于客观评价教师的业绩和学生的成绩。学生的能力水平在本质上也是模糊的现象, 但我们却习惯于用精确的分数来体现。这种以人为的方式把本质上是模糊的事物精确化的做法虽然便于统计和比较, 却未能真正反映事物的本质, 反而容易使学生过分注重分数而不重视对知识的全面掌握和运用。因此用四分制的优、良、中、差, 即模糊集合概念来评定学生的成绩更准确恰当。英语教师必须认识到现代英语教学法流派之间的模糊性。现有的语法翻译法、口语和情景教学法、听说法、交际法、全身反应法等十几种教学法的哲学、教育学、心理学、语言学理论基础之间既存在相互排斥、相互矛盾的个性, 同时也存在相互联系、相互继承发展的共性关系。这种共性关系使得各流派之间的界限彼此模糊。我们可以用模糊集合论来分析英语教学法不同流派的个性、共性以及彼此之间的模糊度, 以便能更好地了解这些教学方法, 扬长避短、整合优化, 摸索出适合教师个人和所教学生的教学方法。

2.2 模糊语言理论可以指导英语教学实践

在英语教学中, 教师往往习惯于给学生灌输各种“准确”的语法规则和词语的“准确”解释, 但学生在实际运用时却发现, 几乎所有的语法规则和词语解释都有例外, 这种“例外”正说明了语言中模糊现象的普遍存在。要更好地解决这种“例外”难题, 就有必要以模糊语言观点来指导英语教学。英语教师, 要搞好英语教学, 就有必要在语言理论基础方面增加模糊语言学的理论知的语言环境, 灵活采用不同的翻译方法, 这样才能使译文更准确和得体。

2.3 模糊语言理论可以指导师生更好地培养交际能力

模糊交际能力是充分认识语言的模糊性, 并理解和懂得在何种情况下如何恰当地运用模糊语言进行交际的能力, 既要识别他人使用模糊语言的策略意图, 又要策略地运用模糊语言来实现自己的交际目的。模糊语言形象生动, 且富有含蓄性、委婉性、暗示性及灵活性, 适当地、恰到好处地运用模糊语言, 能增强教师职业口语的艺术性, 从而提高教学和教育的效果。正如英国语言学家厄尔曼所说,“语言词汇中的模糊性在某些情况下是一种障碍, 在另一些情况下却是一种优点。”语言越来越考虑到人们的感情需要避免太直接唐突的表达, 语言的模糊性也更微妙, 往往通过以下几种方式来表现: 第一, 添加附加词, 将某些意义模糊的词语附加在概念和意义明确的表达式之前, 使整个表达具有模糊性, 如I will give you about 5 minutes to discuss the topic. 在课堂任务的布置上留有时间余地; 第二, 在表达中运用意义本来就很模糊的词语, 委婉地批评, 效果更好, 例Most of the students behaved w ell in this dictation, only some of yours leave a lo t to be desired; 第三, 利用模糊限制语, 缓和语气, 更易于接受, 如I would suggest that you practice more after class; 第四, 利用模糊结构, 运用特殊的句式结构, 如虚拟语气句式, 委婉否定结构等传达模糊意义。如If I were you, I would say it in this way。

作为学生, 应该了解和适应这种模糊的教学用语的策略, 进而学会恰当地运用模糊语言回应或主动与教师交流, 使师生交际更加轻松活泼、礼貌、得体和周全, 这样教与学就在默契中同时促进。

3 结论

模糊语言学进一步加深了我们对语言本质以及语言运用的认识, 对如何有效解决当前的英语教学中的一些难点问题提供了很好的启示。将模糊语言学理论运用于英语教学, 启发学生经过推理、想象、分析、对比、鉴别和判断去捕捉模糊语言的深层信息, 是英语教学中值得尝试的一项内容, 既能发挥教师的主导作用, 又能体现以学生为中心的教学原则。培养学生准确理解他人的礼貌策略的能力、学会利用语言的模糊性达到交际意图, 这在当前英语教学过分强调准确的情况下, 对指导外语教学实践、培养师生交际技巧等, 都具有很好的指导和启示作用。

参考文献

[1]伍铁平.模糊语言学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2002.

[2]胡壮麟.语言学教程[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2001.

[3]Zadeh, L.A. Fuzzy Sets [J].Information and Control, 1965.

[4]张明,朱小美.当代国外有关模糊语言学的主要研究简评[J ].当代语言学, 2005,(3).

模糊语言学篇3

论文关键词:隐喻文学作品,模糊性语言

 

当代西方分析哲学的最主要任务之一是进行语言分析,而语言分析就是要找到描述世界的基本依据和形式——语义的分析。德国著名哲学家卡西勒认为,日常言语的词不能用科学的概念所体现的那些尺度去衡量。同科学的概念相比,日常言语中的词的特点是其不明确性和模糊性,因此经受不起逻辑分析的考验。但我们日常言语用词与生俱来的缺陷并不影响这些词成为引向科学概念的里程碑,因为我们是从这些词中获得对世界的原初的理论认识的。(鲁苓,2004:155)亚里士多德也曾说过,美是一种不可言传的东西,不可言传的东西模糊性语言,我们可以感觉到它的存在,但却无法用精确的概念描述和把握它,因为它是模糊的。

在纷繁复杂的语言使用交际过程中,人们往往必须借用模糊或非精确的表达方式来满足各种场合的需要,这是语言模糊性的功用。语言的模糊性和人们日常生活美学的最大范畴接触点就是人们言语中的隐喻——人们选择某种事物来表达另外一些本来无法表达的事物。——这些言语中的隐喻,不但勾起人们通常的联想,还同时诱发了听话者对新的语言异常搭配所构成的意象的想象中国论文网。这种想象就是一种动态的模糊。同时涉及两个不同领域的隐喻话语具有双重影像的特点,隐喻话语的形象,生动和意犹未尽的联想之美就在于此。(束定芳,2008:175)

“The only clues to her intractable nature lay in the twodeep fissures which ran one on either side of her Roman nose, to end pullingdown the corners of her mouth, and in the stony look of the pale-blueeyes.”(Colleen McCullough, 1977:69)

澳大利亚女作家考琳·麦卡洛的著名家世小说《荆棘鸟》通过恰如其分的外貌勾勒、出神入化的动作描摹、细腻深刻的心理描绘、精彩真实的人物对话等艺术形式为读者塑造了四位形象各异,生动真实的女性人物形象:恶毒阴险的玛丽卡森、冷漠高贵的菲奥娜克利里、善良无助的梅吉克利里和叛逆活跃的朱丝婷奥尼尔。节选的文字是对这四位女性中的一位初次登场时的外貌描写,通过生动的隐喻为读者刻画了一个年事高龄却依旧个性固执逼人的老妇形象:“the stony look”这一模糊性隐喻扩大了其语言表达的信息量,模糊性的特征给读者以无限的想象空间。一位普通的上了年纪的老妇为何有着一张坚毅如石化的脸庞?石头这一喻体本身就被人们赋予了顽固的语义,作者此处带着情感喻义的外貌描绘给读者一个强烈的语言暗示:这个人物在小说此后的发展中必然有着异乎常理的行为表现。果不其然,外貌刻板顽固的老妇人正是小说中最为恶毒阴险的玛丽卡森,就是她的嫉妒直接导致了善良女主人公一生的不幸。

“‘Inside that envelope lies the fate of your life and yoursoul. I must lose you to Meggie, but I’ve made sure she doesn’t get you,either.’” (Colleen McCullough, 1977:164) “在那个信封里放着你的命运和灵魂。我肯定把你输给梅吉了,但是我坚信她也得不到你。”(曾胡,1998:174)

生命与灵魂的命运安静地躺于这个信封中,震撼的隐喻喻体赋予了玛丽卡森的遗书——这个毫无生命的东西以恶魔的能量模糊性语言,诅咒操控着无助善良的女主人公的命运,隐喻的语义写作方式带来巨大的思维冲击和模糊性想象延伸,一封平常无奇的遗书又如何能掌控一个人一生的命运?语言上的隐喻带来的强烈语义上的对比冲突势必让读者心理充满了继续探知小说下文的欲求,这是读者阅读的乐趣,同时也是小说作者高超写作技巧的体现。

法国作家蒙太因有过一段评论:“在我们的日常生活中,我们会遇到许多优美的短语和隐喻。它们的美随着时间的推移而枯萎了,其色彩也由于过分一般的使用而失去了光彩;但即便如此,它也无法阻止一个具有智慧的人对这些优美词语的欣赏,也不会贬损那些第一次赋予这些词语如此美妙用法的古代作者的光辉。”隐喻无疑是人类模糊性语言中一颗璀璨的明珠。

《简爱》,一部毫无疑问的文学巨著,一幅展现十九世纪英国民众普通生活的自然画卷。在这幅瑰丽的画卷中,简爱这一女主人公形象就是那闪闪发光的奇珍异宝。这位不屈于世俗压力,独立自主,积极进取的女性在其得知自己的爱人是一个已经结过婚的男人的时候,第一时间的反应是怎样的?一样的坚强勇敢,无所畏惧吗?不!作者夏洛蒂勃朗特用一段出色的模糊隐喻式景物描写充分表现出简爱内心作为一名女性的渴望与梦想破灭后自然的痛苦情感反应,她是一个女性啊,又怎会不痛?在面对转瞬即逝的幸福时!

“A Christmasfrost had come at midsummer; a white December storm had whirled over June; iceglazed ripe apples, drifts crushed blowing roses; on hayfield and cornfield afrozen shroud; lane which last night blushed full flowers, today were pathless with untrodden snow; and woods,which twelve hours since waved leafy and fragrant as groves between tropics,now spread, waste, wild, and white as pine-frosts wintry Norway. My hopes wereall dead---struck with a subtle doom, such as, one night, fell on all firstborn land of Egypt. I looked on my cherished wishes, yesterday so blooming andglowing; they stark, chill, livid corpses that could never revive.” “圣诞节的严寒在仲夏来临;十二月的白色暴风雪在六月里飞旋;冰给成熟的苹果上了光,积雪压坏了怒放的玫瑰,干草地和小麦田上蒙上了一张冰冻的尸布,昨夜还开满红花的小径,今天已盖上未经踩踏的白雪,看不出哪儿是路了;十二个小时以前,树林还像热带丛林般绿叶婆娑,芳香扑鼻,现在却像冬天挪威的松林般地荒芜,成了白茫茫的一片.我的希望全都破灭了——一夜之间降落在埃及地所有头生子身上的那种不可思议的命运袭击了我.我看看自己所抱的希望,昨天它们还在那样地开着花,发着光,现在却躺在那儿,成了直挺挺,冷冰冰,铅灰色的尸体,再也不会复活过来.”(贾卫国,2000:32)

如此出色的笔绘模糊性语言,读完全段,相信没有读者觉得这只是景物描写,因为描摹的字里行间无不透露着女主人公的悲凉心境。在某一特定的语境中,说话者并不是在描述一种自然现象,而是另有所指中国论文网。说话者描述的是与这种情况相似的另一种事态。(束定芳,2008:160) “afrozen shroud”一张冰冻的尸布;“now spread, waste, wild, and white as pine-frosts wintry Norway” 现在却像冬天挪威的松林般地荒芜,成了白茫茫的一片……一个接连一个的隐喻迎面排呈而来,本体和喻体之间相互作用,不管是形象生动的形状相似,还是心理感受上的冲突对比,在最恰当地保持了本喻体之间的联系即模糊性的同时,给了读者探究和共同感受﹑体味女主人公悲哀心境的最好的文字背景,产生共鸣便不可避免。

德国的洪堡特在关于语义模糊性分析的语义场理论中表明:一种语言中的某些词可以在一个共同的概念的支持下组成一个语义场……属于同一个语义场的词,它们在语义上是相互制约,相互依存的……(鲁苓,2004:167)“未经踩踏的白雪”可被看作是冬日万物保暖的被子,也可在作者的笔下,主人公的心中成为“冰冻的尸布;白茫茫的荒芜”,本喻体之间的关系因为感受者心境的不同而出现了感觉上的冲突对比,但形式上的相似性又保证了本喻体属于同一个语义场模糊性语言,本体和喻体之间相互作用,互动成趣,是一个绝妙的隐喻。本段中的另一个隐喻“埃及头生子的命运”,这一喻体所表征的背景文化知识需要读者对西方的圣经文学有所了解才能充分明白其中的奥妙。总之,文学作品中隐喻的模糊性特征需要读者心灵的领会和想象,同时也需要读者对所涉及的事物的最基本了解,因为语言的美学功能就在于寻找至今尚未发现的联系。

语义学概念中的隐喻被认为是人类认知的一种重要方式,而文学作品则是人类对周围一切事物感知后通过书面表达出来的最完整的反应方式。这两种方式的结合因为人类感知能力,文化环境,理解方式的不同出现了模糊性的语言特征,而这种模糊性的语言特征正是文学作品所追求的意境美。只有充分领悟其中蕴含的语义学原理才能真切感受体验这种语言上的美。

参考文献

[1]鲁苓.2004.语言言语交往[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社

[2]束定芳.2008.认知语义学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社

[3]科林·麦卡洛著.1977.The Thorn Birds [M]. 侯勇注.北京:外语教学与研究出版社

[4]科林·麦卡洛著.1998.荆棘鸟[M]. 曾胡译.南京:译林出版社

[5]贾卫国.2000.英汉对照描写辞典[Z]. 上海:上海交通大学出版社

模糊语言学篇4

美国系统科学家Zadeh先生于1965年率先提出了研究事物模糊性的理论,并制定了模糊集合(FuzzySets)这个新概念。这一学说被运用于许多领域,越来越多的学者认识到:同精确语言一样,模糊语言也是一种有用的表意手段,并在语言交际中起着至关重要的作用。语言不总是精确的,当人们不能够或不愿意表达准确信息时,或他们认为没有必要也不合适时,都要使用模糊语言。模糊性是语言的内在属性,模糊语言在人们的交际中普遍存在。Channell是从语言教学角度来研究模糊语言的第一人,但她侧重于分析和描述语言中的一些模糊表达而没有对模糊语言的教与学提出系统的指导原则。随着全球经济一体化的发展,国家之间的交往日益频繁,跨文化交际成了热点课题,但跨文化交际中模糊语言的研究却很少有人涉及。本文运用语用学和跨文化交际中的相关理论分析模糊语言的特点、产生、文化影响、语用功能以及模糊语言对英语教学的启示。

一、模糊语言

Peirce通常被认为是模糊语言概念的创始人,他对模糊语言进行了严格的定义:“如果涉及一个命题状态的东西在本质上是不确定的,那么该命题就是模糊的。不论言语者思考与否,他将视它们是被该命题允许或排除”。[1](P748)Channell在VagueLanguage这本书里,从语用学的角度对模糊语言进行了分类:第一类是由于使用模糊附加语而造成的语言模糊,如“大概”(about)、“上下”(orso)等;第二类是使用模糊词语造成的语言模糊,如“美丽”(beautiful)、“偶尔”(occasionally)、“愤怒”(angry)等;第三类是由于模糊蕴含的使用而造成的语言模糊,如“成百上千”(hundreds)、“amillion”(许多)等。[2](P8)

二、跨文化交际中模糊语言的特点

模糊是语言的本质特征,在跨文化交际中不可避免。由于模糊语言的模糊范畴界限不明,语义范围较不固定,语义因语境变化而比较灵活,呈现出亦此亦彼的中介过渡性的语言形式。模糊语言具有的不确定性、确定性和多样性等特点被广泛使用在跨文化交际中。

(一)不确定性模糊语言的本质是不确定性,这缘于客观事物本身的模糊性和人们对客观世界认识的不确定性。王逢鑫认为,这种语义的不确定性表现为三种情况:模糊(fuzziness)、歧义(ambiguity)和含混(vagueness)。[3](P92)MaxBlack认为:“词语的模糊性就表现在它有一个应用的有限区域,但这个区域的界限是不确定的。”[4](P125)模糊语言所表述的意思完全没有确定范围,可视情况上下波动,表达的是相对的概念,例如,“美丽”(beautiful)这个词,不同文化语境下的人们对于美的评判标准各不相同,东非草原上的马赛女性以光头为美,而东方女性以一头乌黑亮丽的秀发为美,唐朝以肥为美,现代人以瘦为美。模糊语言的不确定性是其区别于精确语言的最显著特点,而文化背景差异和民族差异正是影响跨文化交际中模糊语言不确定性的重要因素。

(二)确定性模糊语言具有很明显的不确定性,但不可否认,模糊语言仍然具有确定性,这是人们进行交际的基础。Crystal对模糊的理解是“不精确”[5](P111),认为每个模糊词语都有一个不变的核心意思,但其意思范畴界限模糊不定。换言之,每个模糊类别都必须由确定和不确定两因素构成。比如说“年轻”(young)这一模糊词,人们一般不认为四十多岁是“年轻”的概念,但会毫不犹豫地认同十几岁或者二十多岁体现了“年轻”的核心意思,如果一个年龄离这个“核心”越远,那么就离“年轻”这一模糊类别越远,即越靠近或者直接进入另一个模糊类别,比如“幼小”或者“衰老”。实际上,模糊词语的核心意思对于模糊语言的理解起到了决定性的作用,这也使模糊语言有个相对固定的意思成为可能。

(三)多样性模糊语言的多样性主要表现在两个方面:一方面,模糊语言不总是表达模糊意义的,如“softbeverage”(软饮料)中的“soft”,它就表示不含酒精的饮料,不再变动其义了;另一方面,一个模糊类别所涵盖的范畴是多变的,比如“youngman”(年轻男子)一般指16~30岁的男性,而“youngarchbishop”(年轻的大主教)则习惯上指的是45~60岁的范畴,30岁的体操运动员是“老”运动员,但30岁几乎不可能当上大主教。同一模糊词语引发的不同语义主要是因为不同的社会地位、职业和文化影响到了模糊类别的范畴所在。由此可见,模糊语言的研究应该重视社会和文化因素。

三、文化对模糊语言的影响

一般而言,由于自然物体本身的模糊性,人类认识、表达世界的局限性和主观差异性等原因,语言的模糊性必然产生,这是语言的本质特征。此外,文化、语言和交际三者紧密联系,辩证统一,模糊语言受文化影响很大,不同的传统习俗、地理环境、文化背景、价值体系等因素左右了跨文化交际中模糊语言的使用。

(一)传统习俗人们传统的交际方式和母语直接影响到跨文化交际。模糊语言的使用因语言而异,有些语言传统上是模糊的,但是来自此文化传统之外的人却觉得这样的交际很困难,无法理解。最典型的例子,经常出现在跨文化交际言语中的表示可能性的模糊词“maybe”、“perhaps”、“rather”,“maybe”在许多文化里表示“impossible”,有些时候“yes”也能表达“maybe”的意思,而“perhaps”则表达“no”的意思。语言与传统习俗紧密联系,传统习俗是引起文化差异的因素之一,反射和限制了人们的思维方式以及日常行为。模糊语言反映了文化,没有文化的依托,模糊语言将失去意义。又如亲属称谓上的差异,英语中“uncle”既可以指母亲的兄弟又可以指父亲的兄弟,但汉语中对此有不同的称呼,如“舅舅”、“叔叔”、“伯伯”、“姨夫”等。

(二)地理环境地理环境也是影响跨文化交际中模糊语言使用的一大因素。由于不同的地理文化,人们对同一个词的理解可能大相径庭,因此对某些模糊词语的理解依赖于环境因素。例如“yankee”这个词通常指的是美国公民,但是世界上其他地方的人可能认为“yankee”指的是那些住在美洲大陆的人,而那些南美洲人认为“yankee”指的是住在北美洲的人,住在拉丁美洲的人认为是指美国人,但美国人认为是北方人,北方人则认为是指新英格兰人。#p#分页标题#e#

(三)文化背景Edward.THall在TheHiddenDimension一书中提出文化可以分成高语境和低语境的理念[6](P50),即含蓄型和外向型。在含蓄型文化中,大多数信息得到内化,言语中的信息不充分,有赖于背景或者语境来帮助理解;在外向型文化中,大多数信息在言语中得到体现。西方文化属于外向型,西方人比较直率外显,因此,西方人说话倾向直接明了,语言表达上含糊不清、拐弯抹角的情况较少;相比之下,东方文化如中国、日本、韩国等属于含蓄型文化,言语比较间接含蓄,模糊表达较常见。例如,一位外国友人问中国司机:“到下一个城市还有多远?”哪怕明知还要开一小时才能到达,中国人会说:“不远,很快就到了,休息一下就到了。”换成是美国司机,他会说:“还远着呢,至少还有一小时的车程。”虽说都是模糊语言,但美式的比中式的更确切直接些。由于不同类型的文化,东西方人们在跨文化交际时应当相互理解、相互适应。

(四)价值体系价值观念的冲突是影响跨文化交际的另一个重要因素,模糊语言的使用亦受其制约。以“individualism”和“collectivism”为例,美国文化倡导“individualism”,因为它代表了个人的潜能、利益、品质、至高无上的尊严、独立、隐私和自我成长,是不可侵犯的;而中国文化倡导“collectivism”(集体主义),大家彼此相互联系,强调共同协作。因此,交际者不能肤浅地将“individualism”理解成象征着自私、自我为中心的“个人主义”。换言之,在跨文化交际中,参与者不能生硬地将自身的价值体系强加到其他文化上。

四、跨文化交际中模糊语言的语用功能

模糊语言在不同语境中具有其独特的语用功能,语用模糊不仅仅是一种语言现象,还是一种交际策略。

(一)提供恰到好处的信息量,使言语表达得灵活和得体H.P.Grice提出了有关言语交际的合作原则(CooperativePrinciples),具体体现为四个准则:数量准则、质量准则、关联准则和方式准则。其中,数量准则要求人们所说的话应包含交谈目的所需的信息,不应包含超出需要的信息,即提供的信息恰到好处。[7](P307-308)模糊语言高度的概括性可以以简代繁,有效简化语言表达过程,提高表达效果。一般来说,在交际过程中为了保证会话的顺利进行,交际双方必须彼此合作,共同遵守合作原则的基本准则;然而,在实际的跨文化言语交际中,有时会使用模糊语言故意违反合作原则中的某一准则,其目的是使话语与实际情况更接近、更真实。索振羽提出了一个新的“得体原则”,包含了礼貌准则、幽默准则、克制准则。“合作原则”与“得体原则”的关系是:分工合作,相互补益。前者适用于直截了当的言语交际(适量、质真、相关,清楚明白,有话直说,达到最佳交际效果);后者适用于拐弯抹角的言语交际(适合特定语境,有话曲说,达到最佳交际效果)。[8](P87-126)以一名外国人向一个北京当地人问路时的对话为例:A:HowfarisTheSummerPalacefromhere?B:About1000meters.因为不知道确切的距离,不知道外国人要-53-走哪个路线,但也不能拒绝回答,所以这个北京人用了模糊词“about”———大概1000米。“1000米”体现了确定性,中心意思清晰,是交际的基础,“about”模糊了这个距离的区间范围,提供了恰到好处的信息量,同时,由于语言的模糊性特点,它使得交际更加灵活得体,以轻松应对各种不确定的情况。

(二)改善交际气氛,保守机密在跨文化交际中,恰当地使用模糊语言,能使说话人在清楚表达会话含义的情况下,避免语言的刺激性,减少摩擦,使交际在和平友好的氛围中进行,取得更好的交际效果。“I'dlike”、“I'mafraid”、“Iwonder”、“wouldyoulike”、“恐怕”、“行不行”、“可以吗”等等,这些看起来模棱两可的语言,形式上并不影响语义的表达,在实际运用上却必不可少,使气氛和谐。同时,在跨文化交际中,使用模糊语言有助于顺利地掩饰或回避一些敏感话题,有利于建立起良好的关系。如总理有一次在记者招待会上介绍我国经济建设的成就和对外方针,一西方记者问:“请问总理先生,中国人民银行有多少资金?”总理面带笑容说:“中国人民银行货币资金嘛,有18元8角8分。”总理的回答看似精确,实则模糊。总理解释说这18元8角8分指的是中国人民银行所发行人民币面额的总和,既保守国家机密,又不使对方难堪,没有硬梆梆地说“这是国家机密,无可奉告”,而是以转移论题的方式故意违反合作原则中的质的准则,同时也遵守了得体原则中的礼貌准则,如此切合特定语境,有话曲说,达到了最佳交际效果。[9](P76)

(三)使言语表达更委婉含蓄、礼貌客气英国著名学者Leech将礼貌原则划分为六类:得体准则、慷慨准则、赞誉准则、谦逊准则、一致准则、同情准则。[10](P31)这六条准则清楚地解释了人们在交际中为什么总喜欢间接地、委婉含蓄地表达自己的意愿。比如中国的一些称谓“鄙人”、“在下”、“老先生”、“尊兄”等,并不是指对方实际上有多“老”,有多“尊贵”,自己有多“卑微”,而是一种模糊说法,更符合礼貌原则。相比之下,西方人外向直率,更注重合作原则。有时为了尊重对方,给人留点面子,人们也借助模糊词语来达到这些目的。比如以下的对话:A准备去商店,B叫A给他带点面包来。A:Soyou’dlikesomebread?B:Orsomething.Anythingediblewilldo.在这个对话中,B有意识地减弱了要求的力量,这样使A不至于有被命令的感觉。B用“anythingediblewilldo”虽然没有给出具体要让A买什么吃的,但却很礼貌地表达了他的意图。

(四)自我保护,避免承担责任Grice认为经由语用推理而得到的会话含义具有五个特征,即可取消性、不可分离性、可推导性、非规约性和不确定性。[7](P307-308)在跨文化交际中,人们在某些特殊的场合下会使用模糊的语言削弱话语原意的真实程度,提高语言表达的灵活性,避免把话说得太绝对,留有回旋的余地,起到自我保护、避免承担责任的作用。尤其是在谈判中,有时即使人们已掌握精确的信息,也要用一些模糊语来修饰,如“accordingto”、“probably”、“inmyopinion”、“seemto”、“基本”、“酌情”、“尽快”。有意将话语说得模糊,避免自己承担说错话责任。#p#分页标题#e#

五、对英语教学的启示

跨文化交际能力与英语教学密切相关,跨文化交际视角下的模糊语言分析同时也给解决外语教学中的一些难题及培养学生的交际能力等方面带来很多有益的启示。

(一)重视模糊语言英语在世界范围内得到广泛的使用,当今外语教学的最终目标是培养学生的“交际能力”(communicativecompetence)[11](P360-361),为了与不同文化背景的人进行交流,把英语当作外语或者二语的学习者应注意学会使用模糊语言,因为模糊语言能积极地促进英语的学习,有利于提高语用能力和跨文化交际能力。然而,许多英语学习者在交际中表现得如学究一般生硬、僵化,主要原因在于语言中的模糊现象与传统的教学法起了冲突。如语法教学,教师往往照本宣科,一味地强调语言的精确性而忽略了模糊性。因此,在交际和教学中,模糊语言需要得到足够的重视。

(二)避免语用失误无论是英语还是汉语,模糊语言的语用功能总体上是一致的,但在跨文化交际中,具体实现其语用功能却因各种文化语境因素而有些不同,如果不能正确地使用模糊语言就可能产生误会,反而成为跨文化交际的障碍。所以,正确地运用模糊语言就要了解语言的文化背景和中西方文化差异,教学者应认真理解语言、文化和交际三者之间的辩证统一;思辨性地处理文化内容,有效地利用文化材料[12](P102),在语言中教文化,在文化中教语言,充分发掘教材中的文化内涵,二者相互促进,方可提高学习者对模糊语言和文化的敏感度以避免语用失误。

(三)强调语境的作用语境决定了模糊语言的使用,Channell认为,外语学习者应当培养一种“模糊”的意识:学会如何理解模糊语言,知道什么时候、什么场合、如何运用模糊语言来达到成功和有效的交际。[2](P12)因为他们不能像说母语的人那样容易内化语言和文化的知识,能在无意识状态下自如地使用模糊语言。[13](P3)跨文化交际教学应重视模糊语言,不能只注重表层信息的传递,应强调语境的影响,注重文化意识和交际能力的培养,语用视角下文化语境的构建,掌握动态的目标语文化语境。

模糊语言学篇5

关键词: 模糊语言学 翻译学 翻译教学

一、模糊理论的发展

1965年,美国科学家查德教授在美国《信息与控制》杂志发表题为《模糊集》(Fussy Sets)的文章,首先提出模糊理论。我们对在自然界中碰到的现象进行分类,经常找不到精确定义的资格判据。近年来,模糊理论逐渐受到人们的重视,并逐渐成为语言研究中的一个新领域。1979年,我国学者伍铁平最早将模糊理论引入我国,随后,许多语言学家和语言哲学家运用该理论从语义、认知、语用等方面研究语言的模糊性,从而形成了一门新的边缘学科——模糊语言学,使人们不但注意中心现象,还注意边缘现象、模糊现象。语言的模糊性是人类思维和交往的必然要求。

二、翻译理论的发展

翻译是跨语言(cross linguistic)、跨文化(cross cultural)、跨社会(cross social)的翻译,既是一门科学(science of translation),又是一门艺术(art of translation),更是门技能(craft)。

著名教授泰德勒(Tytler)提出著名的翻译三原则:(1)译文应完整地再现原文的思想内容;(2)译文的风格、笔调应与原文的性质相同;(3)译文应像原文一样流畅自然。但随着现代语言学发展,这种以“信”为本的理论不能适应需要。英国的卡特福特、法国的穆南和前苏联的巴尔胡达罗夫等人主张在对比语言学(contrastive linguistics)的基础上制定了一系列规则以实现等值(equivalence)。如:Hitler was armed to the teeth when he launched the Second World War.(希特勒在发动第二次世界大战是武装到牙齿的。)但这种对应规则只适用于语言表层,翻译时还要考虑到语言的含义,考虑到语言环境和社会文化,因此,交际学翻译法、社会符号学翻译法等方法应运而生。

三、模糊语言学与翻译学

1.正确选用模糊词汇

在文学作品中,经常能发现大量的模糊词语。文学作品具有“模糊”的生命。如:白居易的《花非花》:“花非花,雾非雾,夜半来,天明去,来如不多时,去似朝云无觅处。”翻译时应正确选用模糊词汇,比如同样具有“请求”之意,could you...与perhaps you could...相比,后者还有要求对方接受之意,所以除了长辈对晚辈,上司对下属,一般不能在同辈中使用,否则就增加了一层讽刺、嘲弄之意。

2.了解文化差异

中国文化属人文文化,西方文化属科学文化。人文文化“重人论,轻器物,价值取向以道德为本位。重综合,轻分析,重意会,轻言传”,“科学文化重物质,轻人论。价值取向以功利为本位,重分析,轻综合,重概念,忌笼统,强调人权,强调人与自然对立”。翻译时需要了解中西文化环境,将中西文化对比,比如“红色”这个词,在中国象征喜庆(披红,挂红)、幸福顺利(红运,开门红)、受人重视或欢迎(他现在红了),在国外却可能象征血腥、暴力。

3.掌握语用原则

只有掌握语用原则,才能深入语言的“境”中,得境之“妙”,捕捉到“弦外之音”,译出语义的内涵,如:

A:What’s the time?

B:The postman has already come.

B没有明确告诉对方时间,但如对方知道邮递员来的大致时间,即对邮递员一般何时来已形成两人的共识,那么“邮递员”已经来了与现在时间形成一种“常规”关系。

4.运用翻译技巧

翻译时可以采用以下方法。

(1)对等译法

用一种语言的模糊词去翻译另种语言的模糊词,例如在《阿Q正传》中:“做戏的锣鼓,在阿Q耳朵里仿佛在十里之外。”译成:“The racker of the gongs of the play seemed to be ten Chinese miles away from Ah Q’s ears.”这里的“十里”是个模糊词,翻译时仍然用对等的模糊词。“成千上万”是个模糊词,翻译时采用对等译法“thousands upon thousands”。

(2)变异译法

一个词表达模糊概念,在翻译时用另一语言的非对等词来表达相同的模糊概念。如:“这些问题盘根错节,三言两语说不清楚。”译成“These problems are too complicated to be explained clearly in a few words.”这里的“三言两语”是个模糊词,翻译时用不对等的“a few words”。王之涣的《登鹳雀楼》:“欲穷千里目,更上一层楼。”徐忠杰翻译为:“If more distant views are what you desire,you simply climb up a storey higher”,未将“千里”对等译出,而是选用“more distant”模糊词。

(3)省略法

所谓省略法,就是把原文中需要而译文中不需要的单词,词组等在翻译过程中省略。如:“王冕一路风餐露宿,九十里大站,七十里小站,一径来到山东济南府地方。”这里的“九十里大站,七十里小站”译成“posting stations and small”而未译出“九十里,七十里”。“他遭受百般疼痛”译成“He suffered aches and pains.”省略了“百般”。

(4)增字法

根据原文精神,使译文通顺、典雅,而增加适当的模糊词语,例如Wordsworth的Duffodile:“Continuous as the stars that shine,and twinkle on the milky way.”译成“深疑碧落银汉,洒落繁星万点。”

(5)具体情况灵活处理

翻译过程中,有时需要根据具体情况灵活处理,比如“胖”这个模糊词,根据具体情况处理,形容女性,可以说“plump”;形容年长者,可以用“portly”;同样的“瘦”这个词,可以是“slim,skinny,under grown,twiggy”等。Vanity Fair里有一句:“Who is a good Christian,a good parent,a good child,a good wife or a good husband?”都是“good”,却译成“虔诚的,慈爱的,孝顺的,贤良的,尽职的”,如果都译成了“好”,译文就显得平淡无味。“当下众人七言八语。”(曹雪芹,《红楼梦》第二十五回)译成“By now proposals of all kinds were being made.”“有倾国倾城之色”译成“overthrow cities and ruin states.”

四、结语

模糊语言学蕴含着强大的语用功能和丰富的文化知识,在翻译教学中将学生引领到这一丰富的语言学世界,则学生不仅能进一步熟悉这一边缘学科,而且能正确运用模糊词语,提高翻译技能。

参考文献:

[1]陈宏薇.汉英翻译基础[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1998.

[2]周依萍,李亚舒.英汉语比较研究[M].长沙:湖南科学技术出版社,1994.

模糊语言学篇6

关键词:模糊语言学 文学翻译 语言运用

引言

模糊的表达在语言表达中是一个十分重要的部分,产生语言模糊的原因是由于思维变得模糊。语言模糊问题是当前语言学研究领域中的一个重要部分,从1965年美国学者提出相应的概念之后,语言学领域内对模糊语言的研究变得越来越多,进而产生了模糊语言学。模糊语言学是运用模糊集合论和现代语言学的方法对语言的模糊性进行分析的一个过程,在对语言进行分析时,如果用完全精准的方式对语言进行研究,往往很容易产生问题。尤其是在翻译过程中,如果使用完全精准的方式进行翻译,在一定程度上会影响语言翻译的效果。

一、模糊语言学的产生以及与文学翻译的关系

(一)模糊语言学的产生

1965年,美国控制理论专家扎德创立了模糊集合论,开始奠定了模糊语言学的研究基础,模糊语言学也开始产生。模糊理论的产生与语言学本身就有不可分割的联系,因为在进行研究的过程中,模糊集合论是一个重要的工具,是对自然语言的模糊性进行研究的一个重要手段。在研究的过程中还延伸了学科的范畴,并且产生了相应的著作。

(二)模糊语言学与翻译的关系

在现代语言学研究过程中,还有一个重要的部分就是语境的改变。世界上的语言有很多种,为了促进文化的传播与融合,需要对各种文化作品进行翻译,于我国而言,最常见的翻译就是将英文作品翻译成为汉语,由于汉语的特殊性,在翻译的过程中,如果采用直译的方式,将会对作品本身的美感产生很大影响。因此在语言学的研究过程中,对语境的研究是一个十分重要的环节。语言中的语境的构建可以说是一种内向的语境构建,涉及的范围比较窄。西方社会发展过程中,认为语言形式本身是交际中传达信息的一种重要的方式,无论是什么样的交际问题都可以通过语言进行阐述以及解释,语言表达的是一种精准的信息,比如传递出“我要工作”的信息,就说明说话人有十分强烈的行为目的性。但是语言之外的语境则呈现一种复杂、不确定的现象,语境是一种难以捉摸的东西。然而在中文表达过程中,一句话可以表达出几种不同的意思,正是这种语言的模糊性,使得汉语变得更加有内涵。在语言学的研究过程中,有学者提出语言学要研究的是对人脑中的各种语法进行内化,内化的语言并不是各种句子之间的集合,而是能够生成不同语法句子的能力。而语言的模糊问题也是在语言应用过程中产生的,将语言学研究过程中的语境排除之后,进行语言的研究就变得比较简单。但是在中文表达过程中,语境是一个不可或缺的重要部分。

翻译是信息传递的方式之一,不仅是一种技术,也是一种艺术。翻译质量的好坏对各种被翻译作品在当地文化背景下人们的理解有很大的影响。在外国文学作品的翻译过程中,翻译的质量参差不齐,尤其是一些作品在翻译时往往只采用直译的方式,使得很多作品的语义以及语境发生了改变,最终导致甚至很多翻译在语句上不通顺、错别字等现象,严重时还能见到一些生僻词汇或者与文章内容完全不相关的词汇。在翻译过程中,加强模糊理论的运用,是提高翻译质量的关键。由于不同的语言具有不同的文化背景,汉语在某些时候就体现出一种朦胧美,因此在对外国文学作品进行翻译的过程中,需要加入模糊理论的运用,加强对各种语言因素的应用。

翻译研究流派众多,尽管有不同的研究方向,但是翻译研究学者大多认为翻译是一种文化交际和语言交际的活动,是用一种语言来表达另一种语言的重要方式,也体现了不同语言之间的关系。正是由于不同的语言之间有不同的特性,因此在将作品翻译成另外一种语言的过程中,往往就会产生语言的不确定性,即模糊性。语言的模糊性是语言的一个本质属性,在语言研究过程中对模糊理论进行运用,是必不可少的一个步骤。在文学翻译过程中,模糊语言的产生包括很多方面,比如一些抽象的词语、一些没有实际代表的词语等,这些都可以被归纳为模糊语言的范畴。

二、文学翻译的原则

翻译是一项复杂的活动,而文学翻译则更加复杂,由于文学作品本身就具有一定的特殊性,因此在翻译的过程中不能完全按照刻板的方式,做到十分精准,毫无变化。在文学翻译的过程中,必须要加强模糊理论的运用,要采用模糊理论对文学作品进行处理,从而体现出作品原作者的真实意图以及想要表达的语境,在表达作者的意图以及对语言进行还原的过程中,还需要产生优美的语言形式。汉语本身就是一种十分优美的语言,在应用的过程中可以对各种外国文学作品进行体现。在翻译过程中如果忽略了翻译语言的模糊性,则很容易导致翻译作品出现生硬的现象,对文学作品的内涵的体现带来很大影响。

在对外国文学作品进行翻译的过程中,应当掌握语言使用的原则以及规范,即使要使用模糊理论对语言进行推敲,以便使用最适当的语言对作品进行体现,但是从整体上来讲,在翻译的过程中要对原著进行最大程度的尊重,一方面是在语言上进行尊重,另一方面要在文化背景上进行尊重。汉语语言文学是包罗万象的,同时在使用方法上和语法、句法、词法上也是十分复杂的,因此在进行翻译的过程中,可以为了美化语言的方式,采用一些模糊的汉语语言形式,但是需要在尊重原作品的前提下进行,对背景进行充分地了解,对文学作品本身的创作意图进行了解,才能避免在翻译的过程中出现一些比较低级的语法以及用词错误。其次,在翻译的过程中,其实是对各种文化进行转换的过程,从外国文学作品到汉语文学作品,不仅是一种语言的改变,更多的是一种文化背景的改变。外国文化和中国文化之间存在巨大的差异,尤其是中国传统文化中对特定元素的表现和接受都是很委婉的,因此在语言的应用上,汉语在一定程度上也体现出一种委婉以及模糊的性质。在这个过程中,应当充分注意和理解外国文化和中国文化之间的巨大差异,在进行翻译时应该要将不同国家的文化进行合理地转换,为了做到模糊以及和谐,在翻译的过程中需要对语言进行详细地推敲,尤其是在涉及到不同国家的文化内容时,要在保持文化真实的基础上进行

三、模糊翻译的模糊性

模糊翻译是翻译过程中的一种重要方式,其中包括语言上的模糊以及语境上的模糊等。比如对美国著名作家马克・吐温的名著翻译中,有一部为《The Price and the Pauper》,我国对这部作品进行翻译时将其翻译为《王子和贫儿》,再比如《Gone with the Wind》这部作品中,最后在我国比较流行的翻译方式是《飘》,给人一种模糊的感觉,给人一种体现了主旨的感觉,飘,可以理解成为是人的漂泊不定,也可以理解成为灵魂上的一种飘渺。 再比如对于同一部作品中的一段话进行翻译,其中一个翻译是:“一会儿功夫,道路上就盖满了雪。四周景物全都又消失在昏黄的一团混沌之中,但见一片片雪花狂舞,天地浑然莫辨。”另一个翻译是:“路一下子就封住了,周围的一切都消失在一片昏黄的黑暗之中,鹅毛大雪在黑暗中飞舞着,天地连成了一片。”其中都使用了简单的词汇对环境进行了描绘,但是其中第一个翻译中的词汇更加具有意境,比如“狂舞”“浑然莫辨”等,究其根本原因,是由于译者运用模糊思维,艺术地再现了原著作中的一种模糊之美,因此使得作品更加有韵味。

在翻译的过程中,一般说来,只要是忠于原文的翻译都是直译,也就是存意也存形的翻译,直接翻译是用一种语言直接代替另外一种语言的方式,不同语言之间的对等翻译方式,在英文的翻译过程中,就需要用一种语言的模糊词去翻译另一种语言的模糊词。在翻译的过程中,有的时候会加上注释,有的时候没有注释,直接进行翻译,直译的目的是为了保留原文中的异国情调及源语文化意象。如果文学翻译过程中能够有注释,则可以对作品的意图进行更好地体现,但是有的时候可能会产生翻译作品比较冗长的情况,不便于读者的阅读。因此为了使得读者有更好的阅读体验,可以不进行注释。如果只是与原文的内容比较类似,但是与原文的形式不相同的翻译都可以成为意译,也就是存意失形的翻译,对这两种不同类型的翻译进行定义时,需要注意的是一个“度”的问题,这个度中本来就存在模糊性,无论是直译还是意译,都存在一定的模糊性,而且任意一种翻译都必须要符合译语的规范。比如对于一段话的翻译是“遇到绵羊是好汉,遇到好汉是绵羊”,这是一种直译方式,而欺软怕硬则属于意译。在翻译的过程中采用变异的翻译方法指的是利用一种语言中的模糊的词汇对另一种语言中的相关概念进行标示,在翻译时用另一语言的非对等词来表达相同的概念。这种变异的翻译方法中,有一个十分重要的原则就是要对作品的意思进行体现,不能违背语言想要真实表达的意图。

结语

模糊语言是语言学研究过程中的一个重要部分,在文学翻译过程中有十分重要的意义,由于语言的模糊性是语言的一种本质属性,因此在翻译的过程中,需要对模糊理论进行运用,有助于对文学作品的美进行挖掘,从而获得更多优秀的文化作品。语

参考文献

模糊语言学篇7

美国控制论专家扎德由于受到模糊语言的影响,在1965年创立了模糊集合论,之后该理论进入语言学。语言学家在运用模糊集合论的基础上创作了模糊语言学这一新兴学科。十多年后模糊语言学在中国启程,倡导者是伍铁平在《外国语》上发表的论文“模糊语言初探”,这可以看做国内最早的关于模糊语言理论的论文,意味着中国模糊语言学的诞生;五十多年来,模糊语言学在我国建立系统的体系,成为为社会服务的实践类学科。

一、模糊语言学在网络环境中的作用

随着社会的进步,技术的发展,网络虚拟环境在社会中的地位会越来越重要,而模糊语言学作为一种普遍的语言现象,也会越来越引起人们的关注。在网络环境中模糊语言学的运用随处可见。我们主要从以下三个方面论述:

(一)本文由收集整理网络流行语中模糊语言学的应用

语言从古到今都发生着变化,语音、语法方面变化小,语义方面变化大;基本的常用词变化小;在新的历史时期,为了满足人们的社会需求,及时反馈社会需要,有时为了交流的目的会创造一些新的词语,比如:“给力”、“坑爹”、“屌丝”、“江南style”引起的“各种style”现象等等,这些词语在网络上很是流行。由于模糊语言学的存在,我们本身对于语言的中心范围是确定的,但是到底外延是什么?这样的语言适用于什么样的语境?上限是什么?我们并没有规定。这样网络流行语的适用范围无形中就增大了,如:前几年“给力”的使用,让我们语言的焦点停留在网络流行词的使用上,之后的网络热词“坑爹”“屌丝”等词,在人们的生活中应用很广,甚至有的新闻报告中多次出现该词语,到底内涵是什么,没有明确的解释,这就使得在不同的语境中意义不一。这里需要注意的是“江南style”现象,这是对韩国“鸟叔”歌曲的前部分的中文意译和后部分的直接引用。目前在全世界风靡,其中各国都有个各国的“江南style”,事实上这正是语言模糊性在全球范围的影响。

(二)聊天工具中模糊语言学的应用

网络作为一种虚拟的社会环境,实际上为人们的交流交际提供了平台。其中最为突出的聊天工具算是“腾讯qq”、“移动飞信”“人人”,当然在特定的“qq”、“飞信”“人人”的聊天环境中,“q友”“飞友”“人人童鞋”们也创造了许多缩写的新词汇,突出表现在数字上,如:“555”代表“呜呜”、“8”代表“再见”、“86”代表“再见喽”、“2”代表“傻”等等,不一而足。数字本来没有文字意义,只是单纯的理性代表,但是在虚拟网络环境中,他们被赋予了丰富的含义。正因为这些数字在使用最初,没有含义的限制,本身存在这模糊性,因而在使用中人们为我所用的,是这些数字在特定语境中拥有了特殊意义。这里面我们需要注意“2”现象,“2”不仅在虚拟环境中,就是在现实生活中使用很广泛,是个平民化的词。可以称别人也可称自己,带有自嘲意味。

当然网络语言作为一种新的媒介,在人们生活中的作用会越来越重要,在上面两点我们就虚拟环境提出模糊语言范畴的常见现象。接下来从心理学角度分析模糊语言学的应用。

二、模糊语言学在认知范畴中的应用

不管是哲学还是心理,言语模糊始终存在。正如伍铁平教授所说的,从某种程度上看,“没有模糊词语,就没有人类的自然语言”,他甚至还指出“某些词的模糊性、不精确性的用法所占的比重恐怕远远超过其精确的用法”。这些说法事实上说明,在现实社会条件下,模糊性在社会中的作用比精确性更重要。

(一)在人工智能研究的意义

新的历史时期,计算机的应用会越来越突出,人工智能的意义在时展的过程中意义重大。模糊语言的主要原因是所表示事物的模糊性,也就是说,客观事物本身是模糊的,那我们在描述客观事物时,所使用的语言就具有模糊性。我们现在的计算机在文字识别方面比不上人脑,它只能识别系统自带的语言形式,如果计算机编程过程中出现了歧义字句,计算机自身无法识别。人工智能的发展才刚刚开始,需要借助人脑识别模糊语言的跨越性思维来进行判断,到底人脑在识别模糊性语言过程中有什么奥秘,需要我们的进一步研究。

(二)在文学作品欣赏中的模糊语言分析

语言是文学的基础,没有语言的文学不是真正的文学。正因为语言本身的模糊性,我们在阅读文学作品中,会有个人体会。正所谓“一千个读者有一千个哈姆雷特”。由于读者自身的生活经历、情感体验、价值观和人生观的不同,因而在欣赏作品时容易将个人思维运用到作品中,每一个人的生活不同,读作品的感悟不同,容易产生模糊性,这种模糊给想象的精确带来可能性。当前社会全球化趋势,使得文学作为文化的传播媒介进入各个国家,我们在学习外国名著时,注意体会模糊语言。从审美角度看,正是语言模糊的存在,我们在分析一部作品时,不同的受众对于作品认知的角度不一,正如一株植物,在植物学家、文学家、科学家和经济学家的眼中折射的内容不一,好像这株植物本身就是多面体一样,在不同的平面满足接受者的要求。

模糊语言学篇8

论文关键词:模糊语言,英语教学,语用功能

1.模糊语言的概念

查德认为:“模糊性所涉及的不是一个点属于集合的不确定性,而是从属于到不属于的变化过程的渐进性”。查德对模糊语言的本质更深刻地指出:“人的大部分知觉过程和思维过程都浸透着模糊性。语言对本质而言是模糊的,因为这种描写通常是对复杂情况的概括的描写”。语言本身是非量化的模糊集合,具有非物质形态的和非直观的朦胧特性。语言的模糊性信息作为这种非定量模糊集合的要素,正是语言的模糊性在人们交际中的体现形式,而得到语言使用者的普遍认同与接受。

2.模糊语言的语用功能

英国语言学家Leech认为,语用模糊,就是谈话话语的这种不确定性,使话语的言外之力不明确的带有动机,是为了交际双方的共同利益。交际双方均可以再谈话中使用语用模糊的话语来达到自身的交际目的或意图。看似简单的模糊限制语,却在不同语境中具有不同的语用功能,体现了说话人或作者的意图。Grice认为,人们在所有的语言交际活动中都遵守会话合作原则,即每一个交谈参与者在整个交谈过程中所说的话符合这一次交谈的目标或方向。这条根本原则具体体现为四条准则:数量准则、质量准则、关联准则和方式准则。

3.模糊语言与语言教学

ぴ谟⒂锝萄е校我们可能会遇到各种各样的涉及到模糊语的情况,这会收到意想不到的教学效果,也能激发学生的积极性。在语言教学中,大量的模糊语的运用可以使话语的真实程度、涉段范围做出修正,也可以表明说话人对话语内容所作的直接主观推测或者提出客观根据,对话语做出间接评估,从而达到表达委婉的修辞效果。

由于研究的角度和方法不同,对模糊词语的分类也不尽相同。E.F.Prince等人从语用角度把模糊限制语(shields)分为四类,程度变动语 如: in general/On the whole(总的说来)、actually/practically(实际上)等;范围变动语如:about/approximately(大约)、basically fundamentaUy(基本上)、nearly/almost(差不多)等;直接缓和语 如:I think/presume/believe/suppose/guess(我认为、相信、猜想)、It seems that(似乎)等; 间接缓和语如:It is said (据说、估计)、It’s well-known/people say(众所周知、有人说)等。

教师经常用委婉语,这大多是属于模糊语,即:“把事物弄得模模糊糊的词语”,运用降格陈述法进行委婉表达。例如在说道有关成绩的话题的时候,如果该学生成绩考得不好,教师应该使用这类模糊词语来表达精确词语学生对分数敏感。教师使用的委婉语可弱化考试成绩不理想给学生的打击,避免伤害学生的自尊心。在谈到成绩差的学生时,教师若运用模糊表达就肯定了学生学习的积极性,这就使用了抽象的模糊限制语,听者(可能是家长)会认为教师既能实事求是评价学生的同时还是个积极的鼓励者,不会引起学生不愉快的感情,使学生感觉到自己是受老师关注的。这种迷糊语的运用还表现在教师对学生布置任务和安排时;在对学生进行评价、批评、教育时;给学生的作业批语;课堂上和学生的交流时。

课堂上教师多用委婉语可保护学生自尊心免受伤害,从而融洽师生关系,有利于教学的顺利进行。如委婉的虚拟语气、If句式的使用都可以避免不必要的课堂冲突和尴尬,充分利用委婉语的模糊语义功能。这些模糊限制语的使用,巧妙地让学生清楚自己存在的不足。同样是提醒学生语音有问题.讲究策略的教师会说“If you paid more attention to your pronunciation,it would be better”。相反,不讲究策略的教师可能会说“Your pronunciation is too bad, do you understand”等类似的话语,其后果是可想而知的。

因此,教师对于模糊语的使用,一方面,可以调动学生的积极情感和动机,融洽师生关系,从而使学生积极参与课堂各项教学活动:另一方面,可缓解学生在课堂上的焦虑,充满自信,从而积极主动的学习。在教学过程中,教师应不断地努力营造一种轻松愉快的教学气氛,激发学生们的兴趣,使英语课堂气氛浓郁、生动活跃,而模糊语的恰当运用则是创造这种良好氛围的必要手段和工具。

总结

总之,模糊语在话语规则、社会规范和交际需要的作用下,形成了语义相对模糊的词汇和交际模式。实际上,人们在交际中的每一个环节都受语言、文化和情境的制约。要正确得体地运用语言进行交际,就要密切注意有着不同文化背景的社会成员的语言习惯特点和各种有关语言的社会因素,并随时注意语言使用的实际情况。作为教师,面对的是学生这一特殊的社会群体,教师的职业也本身和语言有着密不可分的关系。充分理解模糊语的语义功能,将对教学工作的开展有着很大的帮助。

参考文献

1.Joanna Channe1.Vague Language《模糊语言》,[M]上海外语教育出版社,2001

2.Channel J. 2000. Vague Language,[M] Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

3.何自然.语用学讲稿[M].南京:南京师范大学出版社, 2003.

4.何兆熊. 新编语用学概要[M].上海外语教育出版社,1999.

模糊语言学篇9

【Key Words】 vague language; Pragmatics; communication; pragmatic function; teaching

【摘 要】 模糊性是自然语言的基本属性之一,语言学家们指出语言的模糊性并不是无足轻重,制造障碍的因素,相反它保证了交际的有效进行。本文介绍了一种广泛存在于人类言语交际中的语言现象---模糊语言,并对其语用功能进行分析。本文由六个章节组成,第五章是重点,主要讲述模糊语言在英语教学中的运用。作者希望给出模糊语言一个清楚的定义,先分辨了三个易混淆的概念----模糊性、歧义性及概括性。作者还考察了不同的语言学家给模糊性下的各自不同的定义,然后给出自己的定义,这样让读者才能更好地了解什么是模糊语言。而后文章从语用学的角度,遵循两个语用学主要的原则----“合作原则”和“礼貌原则”,来解释为何人们在日常生活中使用模糊语言。本文接下来的部分就重点阐述了模糊语言的语用功能,如给出适量的信息、故意隐瞒部分信息等语用功能。本文认为:同精确语言一样,模糊语言也是一种有用的表意手段。合理地使用模糊语言,不仅能使语言表达更加自然、得体,有效地传载人们的思想和感情。而后就是本文的最重要也是最有启示意义的部分----模糊语言在英语教学中的实际运用。也就是说,有意识地、有意义地运用模糊语言可以使教师的教学更加有效。从语用角度对模糊语言进行全面、系统的研究对如何正确地理解和使用模糊语言,成功地进行言语交际,及其在英语的学习和教学过程中具有十分重要的意义。

【关键词】 模糊语言;语用学;交际;语用功能;教学

1. Introduction

People have many beliefs about language. An important one is that good use of language involves clarity and precision. It is true under some circumstances. For example, you will leave for Beijing for a meeting. So you have to telephone the airline to book a ticket for the plane. You ask the attendant “What is the time of the flight to Beijing,” and the attendant should answer “at 6:15” or “at 9:05”, etc, (the precise time), rather than “this afternoon”. Therefore, it is believed that either ambiguity or imprecision or vagueness is to be avoided.

However, the world itself is more than that simple. Language, which is used in our daily life, cannot and need not be clear and precise all the time, especially in the process of communication. As Joanna Channell put in her book Vague Language, “One of the most useful and enduring insights to come out of the recent study of language use is that speakers and writers tailor their language to make it suitable to the situation.”[1]

In our daily life, vague language is widely used, but speakers often do not realize that the language they are using is vague. We need vague expressions in thinking and communication. Just as Channell says, “Interest in vagueness in language use and meaning has arisen in a number of disciplines: literary criticism, linguistics, psychology, philosophy. Much of it suggests that vagueness is present in a great deal of language use, and that therefore a complete theory of language must have vagueness as an integral component.”[2]

Vagueness of language is a universal phenomenon. As a basic feature of natural language, vagueness is embodied in various aspects of language such as speech sounds, words meaning, syntactic rules, etc. More and more scholars have probed this field, but they still have different opinions on what vagueness refers to. Vague language is neither all “bad” nor all “good” and is playing an important part in human communication. What matters is that vague language is used appropriately and is right for the purpose of human communication.

Due to the reason that vague language, the concept itself, is complex, this paper will focus on vague language from the angle of how it is applied into authentic human communication. It is hoped that such a study could help people understand the feasibility of the existence of vague terms and form a kind of vague thinking and initiate Chinese learners of English to adopt vague expressions appropriately in their speech, and consequently, help them become more efficient in intercultural communications. This paper also strives to bring to light certain aspects of pragmatic vagueness, to be more exact, the positive function of vague language in communication. Furthermore, it tries to apply the study to some aspects of language teaching.

2. Vague Language

2.1 Three confusing concepts---vagueness, ambiguity, generality

“Vagueness”, “ambiguity”, “generality” share the characteristic of conveying imprecise or unspecified information; accordingly, to differ them is beneficial for one to understand “vagueness”.

Ambiguity is defined as “expressions which have more than one semantically unrelated meaning”.[3] In other words, an expression is ambiguous if it has several paraphrases which are not paraphrases of each other. Ambiguity most possibly appears in sentences without a particular context or particular background information. For instance, without context, the following sentences may have different interpretations:

(1) He went into a dark room.

(2) His mother says he may go.

The sentences above can be made clear by adding some words or changing the sentence pattern. Therefore sentence (1) has two possible interpretations:

a. He went into a room with no light.

b. He went into a room that is used for processing photographs.

Sentence (2) has the following two possible interpretations:

a. His mother says he is allowed to go.

b. His mother says it is possible for him to go.

Generality is a universal feature of meaning. Zhang Qiao defines generality as “the meaning of an expression is general in the sense that it does not specify details, i.e. generality is a matter of unspecification. For example, the meaning of city is general because it does not specify whether or not a city is big or small, modern or ancient”. [4] And another example, my friend is general, as it could mean a female friend, a male friend, or a friend from other countries.

The word chair can be used to refer to chairs with different shapes, different sizes, and which are made of different materials. When referring to different kinds of chairs, the word chair just shows its generality. Only when it is hard to draw a clear line between what is a chair and what is not a chair does vagueness appear. Although vagueness differs from generality, it is closely related to generality. If there is no generality, there will be no vagueness. However, being general does not necessarily mean being vague. Almost all units in language are general, but not all expressions are vague.

Vagueness is defined here as “an expression or a word which has one meaning but more than one possible interpretation”. [5] That is to say, vagueness is seen where distinct meanings cannot be identified.

Vagueness usually appears when a pronoun has no clear reference. Pronouns may have two or more references and this will result in vagueness. For example:

(3) Jim says to Bob that he is a handsome man.

There is no context in this sentence. The word he may have three references.

A1. Jim says to Bob that Jim himself is a handsome man.

B1. Jim says to Bob that Bob is a handsome man.

C1. Jim says to Bob that someone else is a handsome man.

Changing the sentence pattern can bring clear reference. In the case above we can change the indirect speeches into the direct speeches.

A2. Jim says to Bob, “I am a handsome man.”

B2. Jim says to Bob, “You are a handsome man.”

C2. Jim says to Bob, “He is a handsome man.”

Obviously, vagueness can be got rid of in a particular context.

As we have identified the different concepts related to vagueness, we will better understand it.

2.2 Different opinions of different linguists

If one wants to get a unanimous definition of vagueness, he will find it a failure. The term “vagueness” seems very hard to be defined since different people have different views. As to the definition of vagueness, different linguists have given their different statements.

Pierce, as the originator of the notion of vagueness in language, was the first to try to formulate the notion in a rigorous way, as follows:

“A proposition is vague where there are possible states of things concerning which it is intrinsically uncertain whether, had they been contemplated by the speaker, he would have regarded them as excluded or allowed by the proposition. By intrinsically uncertain we mean not uncertain in consequence of any ignorance of the interpreter, but because the speaker’s habits of language were indeterminate; so that one day he would regard the proposition as excluding, another as admitting, those states of things. Yet this must be understood to have reference to what might be deduced from a perfect knowledge of his state of mind; for it is precisely because these questions never did, or did not frequently, present themselves that this habit remained indeterminate.” [6]

That is to say, the language system permits speakers to produce utterances without having decided whether certain facts are excluded or allowed by them. For example, whether “a 1.62-meter-high girl” is excluded or allowed by the proposition “she is a tall girl” is difficult to judge for there are many different states of things. Comparing with a 5-year-old girl, she is certainly tall, while among the female basketball players she is too short. This is caused by the vague upper and bottom limitations of the word.

Crystal and Davy put forward the view that “vagueness is on a scale related to the formality of the occasion, and that speakers can, if they choose, be more precise”. [7] They note that speakers in their extracts mark vagueness by use of certain expressions. Among those cited are: something like that, or something, somewhere, probably, and in a way.

Ullmann, tracing from Plato to Byron a recurrent feeling of the inadequacy of language to express thought, particularly because of its lack of precision, describes such words causing the inadequacy of language as “words with blurred edges”. He notes the converse feeling among poets and creative writers, that such vagueness is in fact an advantage. And he goes on to point out another aspect of vagueness:

“If one looks more closely at this vagueness one soon discovers that the term is itself rather vague and ambiguous: the condition it refers to is not a uniform feature but has many aspects and may result from a variety of causes. Some of these are inherent in the very nature of language, whereas others come into play only in special circumstances.

So, he took much interest in the study of vague language. In his work, he attributes vagueness to four factors:

a. generic character of words;

b. meaning is never homogeneous (i.e. it is context-bound);

c. lack of clear-cut boundaries in the non-linguistic world;

d. lack of familiarity with what the words stand for.” [8]

Lakoff, who shares the same opinion with Ullmann, defines vagueness as “words whose job it is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy”. [9]

2.3 My version of the definition

From the point of my view, in a broader sense, we can use “fuzziness” to mean vagueness, that is, the meanings of the words have no definite boundaries; in a narrower sense, vagueness is a language unit: vague words or expressions, that is, an expression or a word which has one meaning but more than one possible interpretation under different contexts and for different pragmatic purposes.

3. The relations of vague language with the two pragmatic principles

The introduction of last section has given one a rough idea about what vague language is, but this is not for one to understand it because understanding vague language is closely connected with the pragmatic matter. As one knows, language is the product of a society and is used as a bridge for people’s communication. Vague terms, as a component of vocabulary, which are also essential for one to communicate with others, should be studied from the pragmatic angle. If the study of vague terms is kept from their pragmatic function, it is, of course, not a trenchant one. This section is based on the two famous communicative principles (Cooperative Principle and Politeness Principle) and sees how the two salient communicative principles explain the phenomena of adopting vague terms in effective communication.

3.1 Vague language and Cooperative Principle

In 1976 Grice proposed that in conversing, human beings follow a behavioral dictum, which he calls Cooperative Principle:

Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

He stated that natural language expressions, which are used in conversation, are governed by principles, especially the Cooperative Principle, and the following is his description of the four maxims of this principle:

“Quantity

1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).

2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Quality Try to make your contribution one that is true.

1. Do not say what you believe to be false.

2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Relation Be relevant.

Manner Be perspicuous.

1. Avoid obscurity of expression.

2. Avoid ambiguity.

3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

4. Be orderly.” [10]

People often pursue the precise use of language, and they regard that the use of vague language would hinder effective communication. “And sometimes it appears that the use of vague language violates the Cooperative Principle, especially violates the maxim of Quality, the maxim of Quantity, and the maxim of Manner. With regard to the maxim of Quality, the vagueness caused by the use of vague language would devaluate the truth of the information given by the speaker, which may be regarded that the speaker is deliberately withholding the information. As a result, the hearer would not make out whether it is true or not. In regard to the maxim of Quantity, the vagueness caused by the use of vague language would increase or decrease the information given by the speaker. Excessive information would make the hearer feel boring, while too small amount of information would make the hearer feel confused. On the contrary, the use of vague language is the strategy applied by people when they are not certain about something or when they do not want to make clear of something. Therefore, in certain cases, vague language is used to abide by the Cooperative Principle.”[11] For example:

(4) A: Where’s your sister?

B: Out.

B only knows that his sister is not at home instead of knowing the exact location of her. So B adheres to the maxim of Quality (Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence) in order to be cooperative with the help of the meaning of out which might refer to the place wherever his sister is.

(5) He is about 170 centimeter high.

In such a case, the seemingly inadequate information given by the speaker violates the maxim of Quantity (Make your contribution as informative as is required), but because the speaker factually does not know the height, the use of about observes the maxim of Quality (Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence). In this way, the sentence is just informative for the purpose of communication, for it is unnecessary to know the precise height.

(6) A robin is a sort of bird.

The speaker maybe not know that a robin is a kind of bird, so he uses sort of to show his uncertainty. Thus, he abides by the maxim of Quality.

(7) Her salary is something between 2,000 and 3,000.

It seems that the speaker violates the maxim of Quantity, because he fails to provide enough information. But if the speaker factually does not know the exact amount of money she earns, which at the same time, abides by the maxim of Quality.

From the above examples, we can see that people value the maxim of Quality much more than the other maxims. Sometimes people adhere to the maxims and sometimes they violate them deliberately for certain purposes. In most cases, people adhere to one or more maxim but violate another at the same time. And the following examples show that the use of vague language violates the maxim of Cooperative Principle, thus conversational implicature arises.

As the above example (4), if A knows that B knows the exact location of his sister, B’s answer does not give A the right amount of information that A requires and thereby B violates the Maxim of Quantity deliberately. In this case, out seems to be a non-cooperative answer.

(8) A: Let’s get the kids something.

B: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.

B’s utterance is obscure. Its conversational implicature is that B does not like the children to have any ice-cream. So he deliberately violates the Manner Maxim by spelling out the word ice-cream instead of uttering it as a word.

The Cooperative Principle can explain some phenomena why people use vague terms in conversations; however, the CP cannot explain all the situations in which vague terms are adopted. In the next section, another important communicative principle: Politeness Principle will be introduced as a compensation to account for those unexplained phenomena.

3.2 Vague language and Politeness Principle

Apart from Cooperative Principle, Politeness Principle is another principle, which is usually abided by in conversations. It can demonstrate the social distance, status, etc. of a speaker, establish one’s good impression, at least save face, and explain some phenomena that the CP cannot account for.

In Principles of Pragmatics, Leech introduces the Politeness Principle, which he regards as the same important as Grice’s Cooperative Principle. The main maxims of the Politeness Principle are: Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modest, Agreement and Sympathy.

“Tact

Minimize cost to other

Maximize cost for self

Generosity

Minimize benefit to self

Maximize praise of other

Approbation

Minimize dispraise of other

Maximize dispraise of self

Modesty

Minimize disagreement between self and other

Maximize sympathy between self and other

Agreement

Minimize disagreement between self and other

Maximize agreement between self and other

Sympathy

Minimize antipathy between self and other

Maximize sympathy between self and other” [12]

Generally speaking, the above six maxims are what people have to observe in daily communication. From the maxims with sub-maxims included, we could make a conclusion that while conversing, the speakers should try to make others benefit more while leave more inconvenience to themselves so as to win approbation from others. And vague terms play an important role in observing the Politeness Principle in conversation especially the hedges, which could make utterances sound more polite. Let’s see some examples and see the specific role of vague terms in adhering to the Politeness Principle, and how the Politeness Principle explains the use of vague terms in communication.

For instance, someone asks you, “Is A in the classroom now”, if you just give him an answer as “I don’t know”, you indeed have conveyed your meaning clearly. But it sounds rude and unfriendly. Whereas if you answer as “Probably not”, though it sounds a little vague, you would convey the basic information and the hearer may think you are polite and well-educated. Some other examples:

(9) I’ve got a bit of a problem.

This sentence, comparing with “I’ve got a problem”, seems to be more polite because here a bit is a vague term, which reduces the implied cost to the hearer. With the vague term, the request costs less, and it is more polite. Thus, this sentence abides by the Tact Maxim.

(10) I was wondering if you could do me a favor.

(11) A: How do you like my new coat?

B: I don’t have an eye for beauty, I am afraid.

(12) You are mistaken, it seems to me.

In sentence (10), with the hedge “I was wondering”, the speaker makes his request politely, which observes the maxim of Tact. In sentence (11), the listener does not answer the question directly, which violates the maxim of Relation, but it observes the Approbation Maxim, Modesty Maxim, and Agreement Maxim. As regard to sentence (12), it dispraises the listener, but the speaker uses “it seems to me”, the meaning becomes uncertain, and it, at the same time, conveys the care the speaker expresses to the hearer, which adheres the maxim of Tact and Sympathy.

“In our daily verbal communication, some speech, in fact, threatens others’ faces, that is, the speech is a face-threatening act. In order to save the others’ faces, maintain harmonious interpersonal relations, ensure successful social interaction and achieve the communicative goal, one of the means is to use vague terms when the other person’s face is being threatened so as to alleviate the nervous atmosphere, which, in essence, adheres to the Politeness Principle.” [13] For example:

(13) Your coat is a little bit dirty.

The speaker uses a little bit, which observes the Approbation Maxim.

From what we discussed above, using vague terms in some situations is a good strategy to observe the basic principles in communication: being cooperative or polite. 4. The communicative functions of vague language

From the last section of the study of the relations with the two main pragmatic principles, we can conclude the pragmatic functions of vague terms.

4.1 Giving the right amount of information

According to the maxim of Quantity, there are two principles: (i) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). (ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Vague expressions are just the device which speakers use to tailor their contributions so that they give the right amount of information for the purpose of the conversation. For example:

(14) We had a procession of 10,000 people.

The “10,000 people” in the sentence is not necessary to be the exact number.

4.2 Deliberately withholding information

“Under some circumstances, the speaker does not want to offer the precise information. So they use vague terms deliberately to solve this problem.” [14] For example:

(15) She is about 29 years old.

This appears to be withholding the exact age, since when questioned, the speaker claimed she had used this form because women do not like to be said to be thirty.

4.3 Lexical gaps

“Speakers sometimes make use of vagueness to convey meaning in situations where they do not have at their disposal the necessary words or phrases for the concepts they wish to express. In this way, people can and often do think about concepts which they cannot really talk about.” [15] For example:

(16) A: What does your friend do for a living?

B: She is one of those persons who look after people in a hospital.

A: You mean she is a nurse.

B: Yes, that is the word I was looking for.

Related to this is the temporary lexical gap, which occurs when a speaker cannot remember a word or a name. For example:

(17) “Susan has gone out with what’s-his-name---you know, the boy with the curly hair.” [16]

4.4 Lacking specific information

If a speaker lacks specific information, an observable ploy is to use vague terms. For example:

(18) [percentage of university students coming from working class backgrounds]

I can’t remember what the figures are but it’s something around the twenty percent mark and it’s never changed.

The speaker provides clear evidence (I can’t remember) that this vagueness is obligatory since he does not remember the exact number, which also abides by the maxim of Quality (Do not say that for which you lack sufficient evidence).

4.5 Self-protection

Sometimes speaker uses vague terms as a safeguard against later what he said proves to be wrong. For example:

(19) A: What will be the weather like tomorrow?

B: I think maybe it will rain.

4.6 Being polite

When the use of vagueness is the speaker expressing deference to the tutor at the same time as disagreeing with her, the vagueness is used as one way of adhering to the politeness rules for a particular culture, and not threatening face. For example:

(20) “Could we, when you give us our essays back---and give us titles---could we sort of meet or something---because I mean---there might be things we want to ask.” [17]

We have already seen a possible example of deference between the student and the tutor. The student tends to use a lot of uncertainty markers, therefore, the request leaves the tutor some options and does not threaten the tutor’s face.

5. Its enlightenment in English teaching

There has long existed a misunderstanding that in the process of our leaning or teaching, we should always take great notice of the precision of language. But as we can see from the above, vague language plays an important role in daily communication. In this section, which is also the most practical and enlightening one, this paper will focus on its significant pragmatic functions in particular teaching environment and see how it benefits both students and the teacher to achieve effective teaching. Through our practice of teaching, we may be confronted with various unpredictable situations where vagueness may be the only solution to help us get out of a situation of awkwardness. And the use of vague language may sometimes bring about unexpected results. If the teacher can use some vague terms appropriately in the process of teaching, it will not only do good for the students but also for the teacher himself.

5.1 Benefiting the students

Language teaching practice provides the teacher with a vast stage where he or she has every opportunity to reveal vagueness to the students. Exactness is only a relative idea. That is to say, in teaching of a foreign language the teacher should try to avoid over-exactness. The mastery of the language also includes its wonderful vagueness.

5.1.1 Appreciating the beauty from the vagueness

(i) In the literary works

To achieve the effect of subtleness and to leave room for the students to imagine, the use of vague language can get the goal. There is a well-known monologue in one of Shakespeare’s famous play Hamlet:

(21) “To be, or not to be---that is the question.”

By such ellipsis, we can infer the perplexity in Hamlet’s deep heart when he was trapped by the condition that father had been murdered, mother remarried his uncle who had killed his father, and evil power was dominant at the court. “To be what or not to be what?” such vague sentence has left us endless ponder.

Different students have different experiences, characters and insights. In the process of teaching, the teacher should train their ability of imagination and improve their judgment of right or wrong, as well as improve their aesthetic judgment.

(ii) In rhetorics

The use of vague language can achieve some rhetoric effects.

The following sentences achieve the effect of exaggeration, for example:

(22) The enemy soldiers were scared like anything.

(23) Your elder sister looks for all the world like your mother.

The following sentences achieve the effects of emphasis, for example:

(24) He is ten times the man you are.

(25) He made a thousand and one excuses.

Of course, the rhetoric effects achieved by the use of vague language are not only the above I have mentioned. The teacher should be aware of the unexpected results from using vagueness and guide the students to master this skill to make their communication or writing more humorous.

5.1.2 Improving students’ writing skills

As far as the students have appreciated the beauty from the proper use of vague language in the literary work and some sentences of rhetoric effects, their compositions will be improved a lot if they can have a good master of vague terms and use them in their compositions appropriately. If they can use them in their narrative compositions, the compositions would become more vivid, more interesting and more readable. If they can use them in their argumentative compositions, the compositions would be more reliable, and more believable.

5.1.3 A better understanding of the culture

“In the course of their learning, the students may pay great attention to the speech sounds, intonation, vocabulary, grammar, and so on. But they usually ignore the importance of the difference of culture. As we know, while communicating, the speech triggered by sounds or written words only takes up a part of the meaning, and the other part is expressed through conversational implicature or culture background. So the teacher should flexibly choose some vague terms according to the culture background and some communicative contexts to enable the students have a better understanding the culture.” [18]

5.1.4 Focusing attention

It is impossible for the students to acquire everything the teacher lectures in class. The students can only bring in valuable information from the teacher. So the teacher can use some vague language to neglect the less important points, thus helps the students to focus their attention on the important ones. In this way, the students can improve their study efficiency.

5.1.5 Saving face

When the students make mistakes, the teacher should avoid damaging their self-respect. Therefore, the teacher should use some vague terms to make his or her utterance more implicit and more enlightened. For example:

(26) “Recently, I found most of the students behave well in the composition assignment, only that some of you didn’t pay much attention to what I told you in class, and their compositions leave a lot to be desired.” [19] Here, the teacher uses recently, most, behave well, some, much, and a lot to present the existing problem and in this way, he saves the students’ faces, which is very enlightening and which is better than the way of calling out the students’ names directly.

5.2 Benefiting the teacher

5.2.1 Enlivening the atmosphere

When the teacher asks questions, they would use a lot of demonstrative pronouns to ease the students and encourage their participation. For example: the teacher would say “Any volunteer”. The reason for the teacher to use the vague language is that our Chinese students act passively in class, and that they do not like to air their views in public, and that they would feel nervous if they are asked to answer the questions. By using the vague terms, the teacher entitles the right to the students to choose to participate or not, in this way, the teacher alleviates the atmosphere in class.

5.2.2 Easing the students

If the teacher assigns tasks in class, he usually uses vague terms to reduce the difficulty and quantity, which could, to some extent, alleviate the students’ rejecting mood to the assignment so that it could achieve effective teaching.

5.2.3 Dealing with uncertainty

The time for a lesson is fixed. Though the teacher has made a careful plan for each task before class, it is unavoidable to meet some unexpected changes in the process of teaching so that the planned time for each task has to be adjusted. In this case, the teacher could use some vague additives, such as about, approximately, or, at least, at most, or so, under, over, etc. For example: “Now class, I will give you about 5 minutes to discuss this topic. And then I will ask 2 or 3 of you to present their ideas. As there are 50 students or so in our class, I would pide you into 13 groups, about 4 in each.” With the vague additives, the teacher makes the organization more flexible.

5.2.4 Giving suggestions

The teacher can use “I am afraid, I think, I would, etc.”, in the assessment of the students activities in the class or in the assessment of their homework. For example: “I think you may sum up the main idea in this way…”, “I would suggest you practise more after class.” The suggestions made in this way would be more acceptable to the students. Thus, the teacher can achieve his or her goal.

5.2.5 Avoiding awkwardness

(i) Unexpected situations

In the process of teaching, there would be many unexpected questions raised by some students due to their curiosity. For example: during a lesson talking about the family tree. The teacher has asked the students to bring a family photo to the class ahead of time. In the class the teacher asks some students to come up to the blackboard to talk about their families, and after that the rest of the class can ask questions about their families. Student A volunteers to talk about his family. After his description of his grand-father, grand-mother, his father and mother, he looks grieved when he describes his uncle. He says, “This young man in the photo is my uncle. He is very handsome and kind-hearted, but he is dead.” On hearing this, the whole class is very sad to hear that. Then, one of the students asks questions about A’s family, “Why is he dead?” A looks at a loss and does not know how to explain. The teacher says, “Something maybe happened to him.” The teacher wants to distract the student’s attention. But the student continues to say, “I am still wondering what happened to him.” The teacher says, “I think you’re very sorry to hear that, right? And we are all sorry to hear that.” Then the teacher asks A to go back to his seat, and continues the lesson. From the example, we can see that how the use of vague terms avoids awkwardness and makes the teaching process more fluent.

(ii) Lexical gap

In the process of teaching, the teacher may sometimes forget the exact word or he does not have at his disposal the necessary words or phrases for the concepts he wishes to express. In this situation, the use of vague terms is the only solution. For example: “When on fire, people usually use, umms…er…kind of tool which contains dry ice and is often seen on the wall in public areas to put out fire.” The teacher forgets the exact word for “fire extinguisher”, and he uses umms…er… to prolong the time for him to think about, and then he uses kind of tool instead of saying the exact word. Since he has described the “tool” exactly, the students could understand his meaning. Thus, the teacher saves his own face.

Furthermore, if the teacher uses vague terms frequently, the students will see the indefiniteness of the teacher’s language, and they would feel the teacher is more sincere and more easy-going, thus, shortens the distance between the teacher and the students, which benefits both the students and the teacher.

In a word, as qualified teachers, we should make the students understand vagueness is the essential properties of language and let the students know more about the language phenomena. And we can also introduce some of the principles of Pragmatics so as to improve their communicative competence.

6. Conclusion

From what we have discussed above, we can see that vague language forms a considerable part of language use. They are part of the linguistic repertoire of a competent language user, who uses them to accomplish particular communicative goals. Vague language is neither all “bad” nor all “good”. It occurs frequently in both speech and writing, but we have seen that many of them occur more frequently in spoken English. The widespread use of vagueness for various purposes and in various situations shows what an important aspect it is of language users’ knowledge of their language.

Nowadays, more and more people in our country are learning English, and one of the most important purposes for them to learn it is to better communicate with the foreigners. Teachers of English surely put great emphasis on the clarity, precision, and care in the use of language. And Chinese learners and teachers devote too much to grammatical rules, so that numerous learners are trained to be experts on grammar but they are incompetent in the real communication. We can see from this thesis, the words used in successful communication are mostly far from precise. “Brown eloquently makes the point that one aspect of acquiring a second language is learning to be imprecise. He suggests that learners of English as a second language often sound bookish and pedantic because they do not know how to use vague expressions.”[20] If people have no access to vague expressions, the range of their communication would be severely restricted. People employ vague language when they fail to remember the correct or exact words, when they are unknowledgeable, when they want to show their politeness and cooperation, when they deliberately withhold information, and so on. And the use of vague language, to some extent, help people save their and the hearers’ faces.

To be qualified teachers, who teach English as a second language, we should first get some general ideas of the theories on vagueness and realize the significant role that vagueness plays in language use. Vagueness creates flexibility. When we are teaching English, we should guide the students to learn how to understand the vague characteristics of language, how to use vague terms appropriately, how to pay attention to the pragmatic functions of vague language so as to achieve successful and effective communication.

Bibliography

[1] Joanna Channell. Vague Language[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 6. P3

[2] 同[1] P5

[3] Zhang Guijun. On Fuzzy Expressions in English[J]. 长春理工大学学报, 2005, 3. P55

[4] 张乔. 模糊语义学论文集[C]. 大连出版社, 1998, P173

[5] 同[3] P55

[6] 同[1] P7

[7] 同[1] P8

[8] Ullmann. Semantics[M]. Oxford:Blackwell, 1962, P118

[9] 同[1] P11

[10] George Yule. Pragmatics[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版, 2000, 3. P37

[11] 程建山. 从会话原则看模糊限制语的语用功能[J]. 勋阳师范高等专科学校学报,2005, 2.P142

[12] 杨信彰. An Introduction to Linguistcs[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社, 2005, 2. P174

[13] 贾芳. 英语模糊限制语的语用理解[J]. 山西煤炭管理干部学院学报, 2005, 2. P74

[14] 潘进. 浅谈英语模糊语[J]. 华东船舶工业学院学报, 2001, 6. P84

[15] 徐敏慧. 模糊语言中的语用问题[J]. 山东外语教学, 2003, 4. P36

[16] 邓贤贵,刘正喜. 英语模糊语及其语用功能[J]. 西安外国语学院学报, 2000, 12. P22

[17] 同[14] P85

[18] 肖友群. 模糊限制语在英语教学中的语用功能[J]. 职教论坛, 2005, 12. P34

[19] 余丽,曾小珊. 教师话语中的模糊语言分析[J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2005, 2. P168

模糊语言学篇10

关键词 投射理论 权势关系 意识形态 模糊语言

中图分类号:H030 文献标识码:A

1研究背景

模糊语言是一种广泛存在于人类言语交际活动中的语言现象,而模糊限制语则是其中最普遍和最典型的。在当今传媒日益发达和广泛影响的今天,模糊限制语在新闻体裁中同样屡见不鲜。Halliday认为,模糊限制语的使用受讲话者意识形态和权势关系的支配(Halliday 1994)。

模糊语言中的间接型模糊限制语可被视作系统功能投射理论的语言手段,即被话语参与者用来显性地或隐性地表达对其所说话语的“态度”(J. Martin 2000),并建立与对方的权势关系。本文以系统功能语法(systematic functional grammar),尤其是J. Martin的介入理论及方法(projection)(2000)和批评话语分析理论为基础和分析方法,采集了10篇英美政治家访谈节目的英文文本,分析其中出现的间接缓和型模糊限制语(attribution shields),力图从投射理论和批评话语分析这两个不同侧面对这些模糊语言现象进行解读,以期解析访谈者所使用的间接缓和型模糊限制语对访谈双方构建权势关系和意识形态的影响。

2 语料与方法

本文以投射理论为指导,采集了50篇英美政界人物的英文访谈文本作为语料,从上述角度对比分析采访中采访者与被采访者使用间接缓和型模糊限制语的情况。本研究首先参考投射理论(Halliday,1994 ; Martin, 2000),将间缓划分为“间接缓和语―投射”类:直接投射(direct projection)、间接投射(indirect projection)和自由投射(free projection)。其次,对每篇采访文本中的间缓进行分类探讨,并选出其中最典型的进行实例分析。再次,通过AntConc对间缓与其它类型的模糊限制语进行统计。最后,对其中三种类型的间缓进行定性对比分析,并且通过卡方计算来验证由采访双方使用的间缓是否存在显著性差异。50篇文本的平均长度为4867.9字,总字数为237095(running words),每篇的平均话轮为16个。

结合本文所选语料的题材和英文访谈对话文本的实际需要,笔者将语料中出现的间接缓和语分为两大类:(1)间接缓和语―投射类;(2)间接缓和语―转述引语类。

按照间接缓和语“投射”外来声音的来源, “投射”可分为直接投射(direct projection)、间接投射(indirect projection)以及自由投射(free projection)三种借言介入方式(Martin 2000)。本研究按这种分类方法,将访谈节目中的间接缓和语为“投射类”间接缓和语。(表1)

表1:间接缓和语―投射类

语料选取完毕后,按照上述两种分类方法统计间接缓和型模糊限制语。首先统计间接缓和语在整个语料的模糊语言中所占比例。

3投射理论下间接缓和语的分类与讨论

直接投射的投射来源比较明确,传递的客观性较强,话语者的介入较少。也就是说,直接投射就是访谈节目话语者直接拿别人的话来为自己服务,以达到质询对方、影响对方或说服对方的目的。表2表明,相对与被采访者,采访者在访谈节目中较多地使用这种方法。

4总结语

本研究有一定的实践与理论意义。实践上,使用间接缓和语可以帮助话语者表现其立场,表达意识形态,以及直接或间接地确立其在对话中的权势地位。在大众传媒日益主宰受众观点及看法的今天,本研究可提醒受众在观看或收听新闻采访时,应注意其中间缓的使用。对一些政治新闻采访提高识别以及评判能力,并透视其中所隐含的意识形态与权势关系。在理论层面上,本研究展示了结合投射理论对间接缓和型模糊限制语进行的讨论,这将为解读特定社科类语篇中的模糊语言提供全新的分析方法。

参考文献

[1] Prince, E.et al.on Hedging in Physician-physician Discourse [A].in R.D.Pietro(ed.). Linguistics and Professions [C], Hillsdale, NJ:Albex,1982.83-97